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 INTERVIEW

Habis Samawi

Associate Professor in Tourism, Dept .of Geography,
Social Science College, Jordan University

"Decision makers are not very aware about ecotourism issues, most think only about attracting more economic development and big projects regardless of the social and    environmental impacts."

 Dr Habis Samawi obtained his B.A. in Geography from Beirut Arab University an MA in Geography of Tourism from Alexandria University, Egypt and a Ph.D. in Geography of Tourism from the University of Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. He has held various academic and professional posts, including Researcher for The Ministry of Tourism in Jordan, Director of Tourist Guides Program in Jordan University, supervising over 35 Groups and Associate Professor in the Dept. of Information, Tourism & Arts of the University of Bahrain. A keen supporter of Ecotourism, Dr Samawi presented a paper on “Perceptions and preferences of Tourists toward selected Ecotourism Destinations in Bahrain” at the Global Ecotourism conference 2007, in Oslo, Norway, while he has also produced various ecotourism papers including “Ecotourism in Petra, Jordan”, “Ecotourism in the Arab World” and “Marine Ecotourism in Bahrain”. He lives in Amman, Jordan.

 The Interview follows:

ECOCLUB.com: Much is being said about Tourism's potential for peace building. Have you seen this at all in Jordan, with reference to cross-border Tourism in Aqaba & Eilat?

 In fact, the role of Tourism in bringing peace to Jordan is very obvious. For example, The Dead Sea beach before the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan in 1994 was undeveloped, but since the peace treaty you will notice a big tourism development. More than four big hotels (5 stars) have already been constructed, around five more are in the process as well as many other services such as restaurants and other. This is just one example. In Aqaba region now, there is a big development plan, also because of the political stability in Jordan, there are a lot of investors from neighbouring countries who are moving in the area.

ECOCLUB.com: Besides the peace treaty and investment - does tourism visibly lead to understanding and conciliation at the people level?  Is there any evidence? Are there any specific tourism programs designed to do so?

 Yes there is some development in Dhana reserve for example where the local people are directing the whole site, but in many other the locals are still not aware about ecotourism procedures. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) is the body mainly concerned about all ecotourism issues in Jordan.

ECOCLUB.com: How important is domestic tourism in Jordan and in what aspects is it different than international tourism?

 In Jordan, one notices three types of tourist movements: first, international visitors coming for cultural and religious purposes constitute around 40% of the total, while regional visitors coming mainly from the Gulf States (Arabs) are around 55%, and domestic tourism accounts account for just 5%. Now both regional and domestic visitors are mainly interested in recreational issues as well as medical and educational issues. Domestic tourist demand increases on the weekends and holidays, their favourite sites are natural reserves such as Dhana and Dubin and Aqaba, as they tend to prefer nature and the sea.

ECOCLUB.com: Islamic tourism is a new and growing trend in the region. Does it merely describe the diversion of tourism flows after 9/11, when Arab and Muslim tourists started visiting Arab destinations, whereas Westerners stayed away? Or rather, is it a regional version of Ethical / Responsible Tourism'?

 After 9/11, everything changed and tourism in Arab countries has increased. Also, I think we have to remember that according to 2005 Statistics Arab tourists from the gulf states are rated the highest spenders among all tourists, spending twice as much as the others. Essentially, Arabs started looking for new tourism markets, particularly in South East Asia and Turkey. But do not forget another explanation that describes the movement among the Arab tourists, which is that they speak the same language and they have the same religion, and they are neighbouring and very close, so most of them come by driving their own vehicles, and this saves money too. I will not agree with the term of Islamic Tourism, Muslim tourists in general have the same needs. In the 1950s local people in Spain were annoyed by European tourists who used to come for swimming but today Spain has become the most important tourist destination after France. I see a big development in responsible tourism in the Arab world.

ECOCLUB.com: Are there any negative effects from Tourism in Jordan so far, especially in areas such as Aqaba that have experienced intense development in the past decade?

 As you know, tourism has two aspects, the positive one where Jordan has gained more hard currency, income and more employment opportunities for their people, around 32,000 new jobs in Jordan according to 2006 statistics. For the negative, I can see pollution and other social problems, the local people always complaining and some times rejecting the western tourists’ behaviour. Most tourist sites in Jordan attract cultural tourists, and these are mainly elderly people and they cause no problem to the local communities. I think in Aqaba we might have some resistance between the locals and tourists in the beginning. Locals are always complaining because in some areas they are not benefiting from tourism. For example in Petra, Rum, Dhana local people are so happy to coexist with tourists, but for the rest sites such as Jerash, Madaba, Ajlun, Umm Quies and Aqaba the attitude of the locals  is negative toward tourists.

ECOCLUB.com: How high on the agenda, is environmental protection and water conservation in particular when it comes to new tourism project developments in Jordan? Is there an adequate ecotourism legal framework in place?

Yes, Jordan is very aware about environmental issues, so before making any tourism development in any area they usually consider the environment. One of the most important issues that is facing Jordan is the shortage of water, and you know tourists are consuming water more than the locals. In Jordan, you can see a lot of natural reserves such as Dhana, Shumeri, Dubin and many others. So I see Jordan as the most environmentally-conscious Arab country. But for sure we are still behind western Europe. There is an adequate legal framework for ecotourism but the problem is its application: for example, the RSCN has set laws and policies to preserve and conserve nature and tourists sites. There is a big project going to take place in one of the sensitive areas in Dubin-Jordan very close to Dubin reserve. The only people who expressed concern about the project were RSCN. The project is currently under way, however many changes were made so as to protect the environment.

ECOCLUB.com: Is the western beach culture, the sea sun & sand tourism really compatible with prevailing traditions and social norms in Jordan, or is Aqaba and Wadi Rum accepted as a sort of special enclave where beach culture - and even overnight rave parties are tolerated so that mainstream young westerners are attracted to visit Jordan? Is any alternative strategy focusing on ecologically & culturally sensitive travellers also followed?

Without any doubt, there is a difference between the needs, the beliefs and the attitudes between Arabs and Western Europeans, at the moment I do not think that Jordan is ready to host young tourists, and especially in Aqaba we will see some reluctance from the locals. In case of the cultural tourists I think it is not causing any troubles among the local communities. Frankly speaking the economic development council in Aqaba are the only people who can decide about tourism projects in the area, they consider some issues, but I am sure if there is they are presented with an ecotourism study, they will stop the tourist projects especially in Aqaba, because they are against the environment. Wadi Rum right now is still doing well.

ECOCLUB.com: Has Tourism, as in other countries, resulted in or at least promoted an emancipation / empowerment of women in Jordan, and has this created any tensions?

Jordan is different than many Arab countries; the women in Jordan have the right to vote and to reach a high position, so now you will find more than three women holding the post of government minister. At the same time women have the right to go to universities, where you can find real competition between men and women. But again we can not compare ourselves with the western communities. The role of women is still small even when you go to high education in tourism, you will find women demand in tourism education is less than for men, because of traditions and customs. I think it is a matter of time. Twenty years ago men used not to be in favour of working in hotels, but now all things have changed: 95% of workers in tourism are Jordanians, out of which 15% are women.

ECOCLUB.com: Is Tourism gaining in popularity in Jordanian universities in terms of number of students, Tourism departments and courses taught, and what about Ecotourism?

Yes there is a big demand in Jordan universities for tourism programmes so more than 8 universities out of 18 are offering one major in tourism, and in October 2007 a big conference was hosted by Jordan Applied University and The college of Hospitality Tourism Education about the future of tourism education in Jordan. For Ecotourism education yes there is a good movement. There are more courses and workshops to be held in the area in coordination with RSCN and the Ministry of Environment and UNEP. By the way UNEP have a base in Bahrain and I worked there as a consultant since 2000. We have produced many reports and held many workshops in Lebanon, Egypt, Oman and Oslo–Norway. I produced with UNEP two reports one about sustainable tourism in hotels, and the other about sustainable tourism in the Arab World. At the same time the Tourism sector has now become very aware about ecotourism issues, so with the help of TIES a workshop was held in Amman in January 2008.

ECOCLUB.com: You have also greatly researched Tourism in Bahrain. Once upon a time most Gulf countries rejected international tourism. What prompted this sea change? How sustainable is the Bahrain tourism model, in an environmental, social and economical sense, and does it differ at all from the Dubai model?

My main experience is based on Bahrain where I stayed for 5 years. Tourism became an important way to attract more Arab and foreign investment, but the problem here is not with the people but with the decision-makers, most people are aware about the negative impacts that big tourism projects may cause to the sensitive shores. The real problem as I mentioned lies with the decision makers: three or four big tourism projects have recently been established and they are impacting negatively on the environment. In Oman for example they held last year a big international conference in Ecotourism. I hope neither Bahrain nor Oman are going to copy the Dubai model. The decision makers are not very aware about ecotourism issues, most think only about attracting more economic development and big project regardless of the social and environmental impacts.

ECOCLUB.com: After the rather-hyped "New Seven Wonders of the World" competition, even the most ignorant will have now heard of the cultural & natural wonder that is Petra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. But how is Petra coping with the growing affection? Are there plans to cap the number of visitors, raise prices or are other visitor management tools being considered?

Jordan was proud to have Petra listed among the new 7 wonders. I think this will not change much, because we all know the importance of Petra among the rest of the cultural sites in the world, it is really magnificent not only for Jordan but for the whole world. I think it might attract more tourists, but again we have to keep an eye on the number of tourist arrivals in order to preserve the location for the new generations. I think we are going to limit the number of tourists in Petra. There are many ways to eliminate excessive tourist numbers in sensitive sites such as by increasing entrance fees, through a management plan to limit, or by educating locals and tourists about the sensitivity of Petra.

ECOCLUB.com: Finally, what sites would you recommend to Ecotourism enthusiasts in Jordan?

I can suggest so many sites, such as Petra, Jerash, Madaba, Dhana reserves, Wadi Rum. I recommend Petra because it is very rich in their nature and culture, it is one of the best preserved ancient sites in the world, this was the reason it was nominated as one of the new 7 Wonders of the World, and also there is a good management plan to conserve the whole site. In Wadi Rum there is the Rum Reserve where RSCN is monitoring the development of any tourist projects - they do not let any hotel to be established in the area. In addition Dhana reserve and the Baptism site are really well preserved sites and locals are being trained to work in both locations. Thank you for the great opportunity to express my ideas to you and to the ECOCLUB.

ECOCLUB.com: Thank you very much!

The Martian landscape of Wadi Rum

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INTERVIEW

Shams Uddin
Project Manager CAMAT (Chitral Association for Mountain Area Tourism)

“The people of Chitral believe in cultural diversity, peace and friendliness”

Mr Uddin was born in Chitral, Pakistan in 1968. He holds Master Degrees in International Relations and Political Science, and a Bachelor of Education, all from Peshawar University He worked as a Consultant for the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, as a team leader with KADO [Karimabad Area Development Organisation], and has also conducted research on medicinal herbs .

Chitral Association for Mountain Area Tourism (CAMAT) is an NGO working for the promotion of community-based tourism in Chitral, the northernmost district of Pakistan, formed in 1998 by a wide spectrum of tourism stakeholders, including civil society organizations, environment and cultural societies, traditional sports clubs and academic institution within the district. The major objective of the association is to enhance income-earning opportunities for “poverty reduction through environmental-friendly and culture-rooted community-based eco-tourism in the remote mountainous region of Northern Pakistan”, through the financial support of UNESCO. In particular CAMAT seeks to protect Indigenous cultures by reviving and promoting the age-old festivals and cultural events, such as Jashan-e-Chitral, Jashan-e-Shandur, Jashan-e-Qaqlasht and Jashan-e-Boroghil. By adding economic incentives to these events, CAMAT believes it can make the protection of traditional cultura a desirable outcome for community members At the end of local festivals, an elaborate waste disposal campaign is always undertaken in cooperation with the local community. In the future, CAMAT intends to promote community-based eco-tourism in the remote mountainous region, and to this end, it seeks guidance and financial support from international NGOs

The remote Chitral region, in the High Hindu Kush, traditionally controlled trade routes from Afghanistan to India, and historically enjoyed relative independence as a princely state, but has recently suffered from unrest as a result of the Afghanistan war just across the border. It is a cultural mosaic, inhabited by numerous tribal groups and one of the most linguistically diverse areas in the world. Ethnologists are fascinated by tiny groups such as the Kalash (pop. c. 6,000) half of whom are polytheists, with a distinct language, clothing and customs. Kalash legends, historical evidence and recent research indicate that Kalash along with other tribes may be remnants of the Indo-Greek civilisation which resulted from Alexander the Great’s passage from the area. The 1975 movie “The Man who would be King” with Shawn Connery & Michael Cane was based on this legend.

The Interview follows:

ECOCLUB.com: What prompted the creation of the Chitral Association for Mountain Area Tourism (CAMAT) and what has been your role?

CAMAT [Chitral Association for Mountain Area Tourism] was established in 1998 in response to the growing prospect of tourism as a new sector of poverty reduction within the parameter of the local culture and natural environment in Chitral and Northern Areas in reference to the renowned Khow and Kalash cultures in terms of festivals, local music, nature trails, mountaineering and wildlife watching as a potential tourism product in Chitral district. Since 2002, CAMAT has received UNESCO funding and technical support to promote ecotourism by protecting traditional culture on the one hand and the natural environment on the other.

ECOCLUB.com: Which are the main goals of your organisation and what do you consider to be your major achievements so far?

• The main goals of CAMAT are to reduce poverty through eco-tourism as a new sector of development through adding economic incentives to protect the traditional culture and natural environment. CAMAT’s major achievements are as follows:

• Revival of Jashan-e-Chitral [Chitral festival] after its discontinuation for 25 years.

• Revival of Jashan-e-Qaqlasht [Qaqlasht festival] in upper Chitral

• Revival and protection of Kalash woodcarving

• Protection of Kalash culture by organizing cultural programmes down country

• Protection of Kalash environment by installing dustbins in Rumbur

• Organizing cultural events during annual Shandur Polo Festival

• Highlighting Chitral’s culture through UNESCO film ‘Between Sky and Mountains’

• Capacity building of hoteliers through elaborate training programmes

• Capacity building of local musicians and to add economic incentives to traditional music and to generate culture-based income for the locals.

• Promotion of Chitral’s culture during Shandur Polo Festival every year in July

ECOCLUB.com: To ethnologists, the Kalash are a fascinating cultural relic, with their 12 gods & goddesses dating perhaps all the way back to the era of Alexander the Great, with Chitral town being used as a base camp for researchers from around the world. The Kalash are clearly a tourist 'attraction' but what does tourism do for them? In your website it is worrying to read that "the Kalash get very little economic benefit from tourism"!

 In relation to the question of tourism benefit to the Kalash people, at the moment they are far from benefiting from tourism as mostly non-Kalash people control enterprises. However, CAMAT is making efforts to transfer the economic benefits of tourism to the Kalash community by:

 

 

 

• Developing and promoting traditional guesthouses

• Organising cultural events outside Chitral to enhance the livelihood opportunities for the Kalash community, apart from highlighting their culture

• Providing information on Kalash culture to tourists visiting the CAMAT office in the Mountain Inn, Chitral town

• Building the capacity of Kalash hotel owners

• Revival of traditional Kalash woodwork as unique tourism products

• Protection of Kalash environment by installing dustbins and raising environmental awareness.

• Media campaign highlighting Kalash valleys as ‘must visit’ destinations

ECOCLUB.com: What measures are in place to prevent the endangered tribal communities of the Chitral area becoming a sort of a 'human zoo' for tourists and researchers?

The real problem with the traditional cultures is that they are endangered, notwithstanding their uniqueness and striking difference from what we call ‘modern cultures’. They provide a great magnet for tourists, who come to see and study these cultures, without contributing to the economic benefit of the locals. For instance the endangered Kalash community in three of the Kalash valleys are certainly reduced to a ‘human zoo’ position, without getting any economic benefit from their culture. This causes frustration among the Kalash people and renders them susceptible towards the uniqueness and importance of their own culture. Instead they are prone to think about a quick transformation of their culture. For CAMAT, in such a situation, it becomes inevitable to undertake measures to protect the traditional cultures and environment through the involvement of stakeholders and adding economic incentives to the cultural events and music and to encourage ecotourism such as wildlife watching so that livelihood earning opportunities for the locals, particularly for guesthouse owners, can be created. To this end, training programmes for music troupes from both Khow and Kalash communities are being organized and an enabling environment to the musicians and traditional sportsmen is provided through festivals, which not only gives economic benefits to these people, but also help highlight the traditional culture of Chitral. CAMAT has also been imparting capacity building training to hoteliers, tour guides, porters and drivers.

ECOCLUB.com: Are you trying to develop Community Tourism & Ecological Tourism in the Chitral Area, or, as an association, are you happy to represent any type of tourism in the light of the current difficult circumstances?

CAMAT has been working via a UNESCO project to promote community-based ecotourism to improve the livelihood of the locals by protecting the traditional culture and natural environment. However, we are encouraging numerous types of tourism, such as adventure, wildlife, cultural and study tourism etc. Through different varieties of tourism, CAMAT can be in a position to enhance the prospect of economic benefits for the locals through tourism, which is one of the new sectors of economic development. However, CAMAT’s potential area is ecotourism.

ECOCLUB.com: Historically mountainous, inaccessible Chitral has seen off many invading armies and colonisers, but has always been a mosaic of civilisations. In theory Tourism can contribute to peace building & intercultural understanding. In practice, do you have practical examples of how tourism in the Chitral area is currently contributing to intercultural understanding, at this difficult time and place, so close to the theatres of war? 

Chitral is really a mosaic culture and the people of Chitral believe in cultural diversity, peace and friendliness. Chitral has many things to display in terms of rich cultures, unspoiled natural environment, and archaeological sites, natural trails, wildlife, and snow-capped peaks for mountaineers. It has 13 different cultures and languages within the fold of its different valleys. CAMAT believe that tourism can really contribute to intercultural understanding and enable tourists to understand things in the given destination. CAMAT has made efforts to provide information to tourists through brochures, personal contacts and pictures. It is felt that tourists who visit Chitral always leave with a positive impression about the peacefulness, hospitality, scenic beauties and natural environment of Chitral. This further feeds into augmenting the prospect of a tourism influx in the years ahead.

 ECOCLUB.com: Your organisation has been the recipient of sizable foreign aid from multilateral bodies and private foundations. Could you have managed without this foreign aid? What would you say to those who believe that this type of aid to businesses may create a false sense of security and lead to disaster when foreign donor funds abruptly dry out, as it has not allowed business structures to 'cut their teeth'?

 CAMAT is a non-profit non-loss tourism development association, which receives funding from UNESCO to promote community-based eco-tourism by protecting the traditional cultures and natural environment in the mountainous region of Chitral. CAMAT has always taken into consideration the fact that dependence on funding sources could be a hurdle for sustainability of the association. CAMAT has taken the following measures to meet sustainability of its activities:

• By raising funds for cultural events through Cultural Committees during  different cultural events

• By involving volunteers in culture and environment protection activities

• By developing guesthouses in the Kalash valleys and other parts of Chitral

• By providing services to registered hotels and Jeep owners

For the year 2006 onward sustainability of the activity has been one of our major areas of consideration.

ECOCLUB.com: Issues of NGO accountability & transparency have become important in the 'west'. Do you feel accountable to your donors, to the members of your association, or to the people of Chitral? And in what ways do you measure your organisations' performance and contribution?.

Personally I don’t like the over-expenditure issues associated with the majority of NGOs. The big problem with NGOs has always been high expenditures with almost no outcomes. Donors often pay scant attention to the small details and only follow the broader frame of operation, which is presented to them as a ‘make believe document’. Taking into consideration the above facts and after practical observation, CAMAT has based its activities with minimal funding from UNESCO—the only source of funding for the association. We present details of all expenditure to the Board of Directors—the honorary set up—which supervise and provide guidance for management activities. We measure the success and influence of our association through Tourist feedback forms, BoD Satisfaction Remarks, voluntary services of Cultural Committees, voluntary services of Chitral Polo Association, registered with CAMAT, productive interaction with district administration and interaction with local communities, cultural troupes and environment protection societies in the entire district.

ECOCLUB.com: If CAMAT had absolute power in Chitral to put one thing right which one would it be and why?

CAMAT would have redoubled its efforts to protect the culture of the endangered Khow and Kalash communities, which we feel is the vital tourism product and a world class cultural heritage. Unfortunately, the Kalash culture is dying out under the pressure in the fast changing prospect of globalization.

ECOCLUB.com: How can interested readers assist CAMAT in implementing its goals? Is the area actually safe for tourists and when is the best time to visit?

CAMAT is a non-profit non-loss association working for the promotion of ecotourism in Chitral and is implementing a UNESCO project on ecotourism. Some of its activities are revival and promotion of cultural festivals, protection of natural environment, capacity-building initiatives, and media campaigning through cultural movies, linkage development and advocacy campaigns. We would welcome like-minded international entities involved in tourism to work with CAMAT on the above agendas. Chitral is really safe for tourists and the best time to visit is from April to October. During this time tourists can take in cultural festivals, wildlife watching, trekking, horse riding and visit archaeological sites and shop in Chitral’s main market.

ECOCLUB.com: Finally, what are your organisation's plans for the immediate future?

CAMAT would like to strengthen its activities, which it has undertaken for the last 5 years, as we feel that the improvement in eco-tourism really lies within these initiatives, and strengthening them further will definitely contribute to enhancing the prospect of tourism in the Northern Areas, let alone Chitral and NWF Province.

ECOCLUB: Thank you very much.

ECO PAPER

Ecotourism in Post-Conflict Peace-Building:  A New Tool for Reconciliation?

By Nikolas J Strong-Cvetich[1] and Dr. Jason Scorse, PhD[2]

Abstract

This paper lays out three hypotheses as to how ecotourism, through its unique economic incentives, can help to build cooperation among formerly conflicting groups. The case study of the Mountain Gorillas and ecotourism collaboration in the Virunga-Bwindi region of Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo provide a detailed account of how collaboration in ecotourism between former warring parties is contributing to the success of gorilla conservation, development, and the foundations for sustainable peace. Other examples of how ecotourism could help with post-conflict reconciliation in Kashmir and the Ethiopian-Eritrean recovery are also discussed.

I. Introduction

Ecotourism is gaining increased credibility among both the international economic development and the international conservation sectors. The Ecotourism Society in 1991 defined ecotourism as: “responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of the local people”.[3] This definition has been accepted by such organizations as Conservation International (CI) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Ecotourism bridges the gap between economic development and environmental preservation by creating economic incentives for environmental conservation through tourism. Ecotourism has become a very effective policy tool for reducing poverty and stemming natural resource degradation and biodiversity loss.[4] This  is also one of the fastest growing markets in the world as the Virunga Massif Sustainable Tourism Development Plan reports, “Many important ecotourism destinations were experiencing double digit average annual growth between 1986 and 1998 (e.g., Ecuador 17%, Costa Rica 32%, Belize 25%, Botswana 19%, and South Africa 108%).”[5]

In addition to providing a means of protecting important ecological areas and generating revenue for local peoples, ecotourism may also serve another important function: to reduce the impetus for conflict and build stable cooperative relationships among rival groups.

This paper proposes that ecotourism should be added to the burgeoning field of environmental peacemaking. Many scholars once viewed the environment primarily as a source of conflict, positing that resource scarcity and environmental degradation often lead to violent competition[6]. Environmental peacemaking theorists propose an alternative theory, that the mutual challenge and trans-boundary nature of environmental problems creates scenarios in which cooperation is more beneficial than conflict. As Ken Conca writes in his seminal paper, The Case for Environmental Peacemaking, “Overlapping ecosystemic interdependencies might provide a chance to create opportunities for shared gains and establish a tradition of cooperation.”[7]

Specifically, ecotourism can build cooperative relationships in three distinct ways:

1)      Ecotourism creates unique, mutually beneficial economic incentives for cooperation and nature conservation.

2)     Shared natural heritage can be a strong motivator for cooperation and trust building, as can shared management and work experience.

3)      Ecotourism may be particularly amenable to grassroots efforts that circumvent top-down, bureaucratic impasses, and lead to positive spillover effects in other areas.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section II discusses how the current environmental peacemaking and “Peace Park” literature fails to adequately address the economic factors that hamper post-conflict reconciliation and trust building, Section III outlines the theory of how ecotourism can assist in post-conflict reconciliation, Section IV provides a case study by examining the role of ecotourism in the gorilla conservation efforts of the Virunga-Bwindi region between Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, Section V explains how this analysis can be applied to other post-conflict situations such as the Kashmir and the Ethiopian-Eritrean recovery, and Section VI presents the conclusions.

II. Literature Review

Environmental security is a relatively new area within the field of international relations. The field has been dominated by the liberal vs. realist theories of the causes of conflict and the factors that prolong them. Only recently have scholars started to extend the field of conflict studies into new areas. Early work, like that of Johan Galtung[8], began examining the link between resource issues and conflict. Others such as Thomas Homer-Dixon[9] and Nils Petter Gleditsch looked at the role of population growth and scarcity as impetuses of conflict. Ken Conca disputed their central claim, contending that “environmental problems also create incentives for cooperation and collective action[10]”. His work provided the impetus for the larger discourse surrounding environmental peacemaking. Similar to ecotourism, environmental peacemaking is also loosely defined. Geoffrey Dabelko posits that there are four phases in which environmental peacemaking can be transformative[11]:

                1) The environment as conflict prevention

                2) The environment as a lifeline in times of conflict

                3) The environment as an essential ingredient to peace agreement

                4) The environment as post-conflict trust builder

This last area, the environment as a post-conflict trust builder, has spawned a significant sub-body of initiatives and literature surrounding the creation of Peace Parks, which are trans-border protected areas that intend to build cooperation through mutual management of protected areas[12]. Much of the literature on these parks concentrates on the management of conflict and conservation, with the economics of the park and ecotourism only addressed peripherally. The role of economic resources and beneficiaries are not mentioned as goals of Peace Parks; they are largely left as unexamined variables in the environmental peacemaking literature.

A more thorough examination of the role of ecotourism in building collaboration within the area of environmental peace-building is needed. Similarly, despite the ongoing research, ecotourism has not been fully explored as a tool for peacemaking and cooperation.

Ecotourism, which was coined in the late-seventies, is considered as distinct from nature-based tourism. At the onset of ecotourism research, many scholars argued over the definition and criteria. Even after the International Ecotourism Society coined the definition, there was still disagreement over what the definition actually meant. Donald G. Reid of Guelph University in Canada wrote extensively on this particular question in his article Defining Ecotourism[13]. Martha Honey helped to operationalize the definition in her book Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise?, by setting seven criteria that ecotourism projects should try to meet. According to Honey, ecotourism should[14]:

                1) involve travel to natural destinations

                2) minimize impact

                3) build environmental awareness

                4) provide direct financial benefits for conservation

                5) provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people,

                6) respect local culture

                7) support human rights

Nowhere in her criteria is cooperation or promoting peace mentioned. Only a small number of scholars have addressed the peacemaking potential of tourism, largely because these investigations have only examined the exchange between host and visitor.[15] No one has looked at the peacemaking potential of ecotourism between rival groups in post-conflict regions.

III. How Ecotourism Can Assist In Post-Conflict Reconciliation

As Geoff Dabelko suggests, “sustainable development is critical to ensuring global security, and peace is required for effective development.”[16] Ecotourism can be an essential tool for helping to integrate development and economic incentives into environmental peacemaking efforts. Ecotourism has this potential for several reasons.

First, conservation can create incentives for cooperation and trust-building through the interdependence created by the nature of ecosystems. The effect of collaborative conservation also creates economic interdependence due to the revenue from ecotourism. Once livelihoods can be tied to cooperation, the incentive to fight can be reduced significantly. Nowhere do we see this illustrated more clearly than during the 1924-1994 conflict in Ireland; tourism was essentially the only area where the Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland collaborated across the border. Eric G.E. Zuelow describes the role of tourism during this period: “Even when a virtual cold war existed between the respective governments, the potential financial gain offered by tourism usually trumped political concerns and brought people together[17]”. (This case doesn’t relate directly to ecotourism, but it is clear that tourism was one area in which it was mutually beneficial for the two sides to work together.)

Ecotourism also can create many other forms of economic interdependence, as revenue from conservation moves to different sectors of the economy and different regions. Ecotourism attracts visitors to a central location, but once they arrive, visitors tend to visit other sites and services, which may cross former adversarial boundaries.[18] For example, there is an ecotourist operation in Croatia that brings tourists across the border into Bosnia for river trips on the Neretva, which flows through both countries.[19] This operation creates a situation in which cross-